Koshur, or the Kashmiri language, is spoken across the regions of Kashmir, Kishtwar, Ramban, Poonch, and Gulabgarh. It is the most widely spoken language in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir. According to the 2011 Census of India, 52.87 per cent of the population in the Union Territory regard it as their mother tongue.
Uncertain Beginnings
It is difficult to determine the exact point at which Kashmiri emerged as a distinct language, as much of its early literature has been lost. However, sufficient evidence suggests that the language dates back at least to the thirteenth century, if not earlier.
Despite Persian being the official language during several historical periods, Kashmiri remained in active use. Srivera’s Rajtarangini recounts an episode in which Mahmood Shah Khilji, King of Malwa, presented garments to the Kashmiri ruler Sultan Budshah. In return, Budshah gifted him a poem composed in Kashmiri.
Abdul Ahad Azad, Kashmiri’s first literary historian and critic, and a celebrated poet, explores the origins of the language in his foundational work Kashmiri Language and Poetry, Volume One. He identifies three dominant theories. The first proposes that Kashmiri emerged from Sanskrit. The second argues it originated not from Sanskrit, but from Dardic. The third suggests that the language evolved from Syriac and Hebrew.
In an article titled Evolution of Kashmiri Language, published in Hamdard on 5 July 1942, Poet-Laureate Shri Nath Shastri stated that Sanskrit was the first language used in Kashmir, followed by Prakrit, which gradually deformed into Kashmiri.
Supporting this multilingual origin, Pandit Ram Chandra Koul Abhay, in his article Nature of Kashmiri Language, published on 31 July 1931, observed that Kashmiri contains numerous words from Chinese, Tibetan, Russian, Arabic, Persian, Punjabi, and English. These layers reflect the linguistic and cultural exchanges the region has witnessed.
Linguistic Composition
European scholar G. T. Wein found that the Kashmiri language comprises roughly 50 per cent Sanskrit-derived words, 10 per cent Persian, 33 per cent Tibetan, with the remaining vocabulary stemming from Dardic and Dogri.
This suggests a composite evolution shaped by multiple linguistic influences. Buhler, another scholar, also maintained that Kashmiri originated from Sanskrit. He noted a distinction in vocabulary based on religious community: Kashmiri Muslims tended to use Persian loanwords, while Kashmiri Pandits favoured Sanskrit-derived terms.
George Grierson, the compiler of Kashmiri’s first dictionary in 1932 and author of the eleven-volume Linguistic Survey of India, argued that the Kashmiri language evolved from Sanskrit. He placed it under the Pisacha and Dardic groups of languages. He also noted that Kashmiri is an old language, dating back to the stage when Prakrit, in its Apabhramsa form, was transforming into what would eventually become modern Kashmiri.
However, Georg Morgenstierne dismissed this classification. He argued that Kashmiri should be placed among the Indo-Aryan languages based on its linguistic characteristics. His view was later supported by Emeneau. Suniti Kumar Chatterji also held that Kashmiri belongs to the Indo-Aryan family.
Early Literature
According to Grierson, Kashmiri is the only Dardic language with an extensive literary tradition. Its literary history begins with devotional and mystical poetry. The earliest known Kashmiri poet is Shiti Kantha, whose Mahana Prakash is regarded as the first collection of Kashmiri verse. He was followed by Lal Ded and Sheikh Nooruddin Noorani, who expanded the mystical strain in Kashmiri literature.
Kashmiri literary historian and critic Jay Lal Kaul, in his work Studies in Kashmiri, identified four distinct phases in the evolution of Kashmiri literature. The first spans from the language’s origin up to 1555, when Sultan Habib Shah, the last of the Sultans, was dethroned and Ghazi Chak took power.
The second period runs from 1555 to 1752, marking the rule of the Chaks and ending with Ahmad Shah Durrani’s conquest, which brought Mughal rule to a close. The third phase, from 1752 to 1925, encompasses Afghan rule and ends with the reign of Dogra Maharaja Pratap Singh. The fourth period stretches from 1925 to 1947.
Most of the literary output in Kashmiri has remained mystical in tone and content. From Shiti Kantha to Ahad Zargar, from Nund Rishi and Lal Ded to Parmananda, from Zinda Kaul to Shamas Faqir, the tradition remained rooted in spiritual expression. Humour, however, has found limited space in the literary history of the Kashmiri language.
Early Translations
Jay Lal Kaul further divided Kashmiri prose writing into two distinct periods. The first spans from 1885 to 1925, and the second from 1925 to 1947. Before this, prose existed primarily in the form of folktales, passed orally by professional storytellers whose names remain unknown. Some of these stories were later translated into English by J. H. Knowles.
In 1913, Ananda Coomaraswamy, a philosopher and folklorist of international renown, spent two months in Kashmir. Following his visit, he published Thirty Songs from Punjab and Kashmir, a collection that reflected his engagement with local oral traditions.
Even earlier, translations of religious texts, epics, and Persian poetry had already begun. The Mahabharata was rendered into Kashmiri during the reign of Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin. During the same period, a play titled Zanna Villasa was composed by Bhadeh Bhatta.
From 1885 onwards, Prakash Kaul translated the Ramayana into Kashmiri. Its abridged version was later produced by Nila Kanth Sharma. Molvi Siddiqullah translated Nizami’s Sikandarnama, and Molvi Yehya translated selected parts of the Qur’an. In 1878, Isvara Kaul authored a grammar of the Kashmiri language.
Development of Fiction in Kashmiri
Kashmiri short stories form a vibrant part of its literary tradition. Notable writers in this genre include Taj Begum Renzoo, Akhtar Mohiuddin, Amin Kamil, and Hari Krishan Kaul. However, the novel remains underdeveloped in Kashmiri literature. Among the few who made a mark in this form are Akhtar Mohiuddin and G. N. Gowhar.
At different moments, Kashmiri literature has been appropriated for political purposes. Several literary organisations emerged in this context. One such group, the Cultural Front, was established by G. M. Sadiq, a prominent communist ideologue and pro-India politician. This body was later renamed the Cultural Congress, and eventually the Cultural Conference. These entities were often deployed to suppress dissenting voices.
State-run media outlets, including Radio Kashmir and Doordarshan, organised literary events such as mushairas that aligned with official narratives and were directed against public expressions of resistance.
In the current climate, the Kashmiri identity continues to face sustained challenges, with language remaining a central element under threat. As pressures intensify, the need for Kashmiris to protect their linguistic and literary heritage becomes increasingly urgent.
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